Session H01: Poster Session

Room temperature resistance measurements of metallic thin films using microwave cavities

A necessary element of superconducting qubits are LC resonator circuits responsible for manipulating the qubit’s quantum states and facilitating qubit readout. It is therefore of great interest to minimize the physical size of the linear capacitors and inductors within these circuits to optimize the limited real estate of a qubit architecture. We therefore look towards superconducting materials that have an intrinsic inductance associated with the inertia of charge carriers. This so-called “kinetic inductance” has proven to be orders of magnitude larger than geometric inductance and has the potential to reduce the size of qubits.

Still, before using these materials within a qubit, it is necessary to characterize the film parameters. The kinetic inductance of a type-I superconductor can be calculated from its sheet resistance; however, traditional I - V measurements should be avoided because contact from the probe can damage the fragile surface of the thin film. This project therefore explores the precision of contactless resistance measurements that can be achieved using microwave cavities. The insertion of a sample into a cavity will introduce new losses, therefore making it possible to extract the resistance of the sample from the change in the quality factor of the cavity. These losses are simulated using finite element analysis software and show that sufficient precision can be obtained.   

General Amplitude Modulation for Robust Trapped-Ion Entangling Gates

Trapped-ion systems are a promising route toward the realization of both near-term and universal quantum computers. One of the remaining challenges is improving the fidelity of two-qubit entangling gates. These operations are often implemented by addressing individual ions with laser pulses using the Molmer-Sorensen (MS) protocol. Amplitude modulation (AM) is a well-studied extension of this protocol, where the amplitude of the laser pulses is controlled as a function of time. The complexity of the pulse allows tradeoffs to be made between the laser power, gate time, and fidelity. We present an analytical study of AM using a Fourier series expansion so that the laser amplitudes may be represented as any continuous function in principle. We specifically study gate-timing errors, and we have shown that the sensitivity of the fidelity to these errors can be improved without a significant increase in the average laser power or the gate time. We plot atomic population vs time for both the MS protocol and the protocol with AM, highlighting the increased robustness of the AM gates. Furthermore, we numerically estimate the increased factor of power required to achieve a particular level of fidelity given an error estimate of the gate time fluctuations in the experimental setup.   

Building a Better Template Bank​: A test of astrophysical models using the cross-correlation search ​method for intermediate-duration gravitational waves​

The Cross-Correlation Algorithm (COCOA) is an analysis technique that aims to better analyze "intermediate-duration" gravitational waves signals of order 10 to 10,000 seconds in duration. COCOA addresses the shortcoming of traditional methods by providing tunable sensitivity by leveraging partial modeling when fully precise models are unavailable or infeasible. Despite being shown to be highly effective in this regime [R. Coyne, et al. (2016); E. Sowell, et al. (2019)], COCOA has only been tested on a limited number of astrophysical models. This work extends previous efforts by testing COCOA on a broader range of astrophysical model's waveforms [A. Corsi, et al. (2009); M. Van Putten, et al. (2004)]. We test COCOA at both extremes of its sensitivity range.​   

Observational and Computational Study of Scattering and Sky Polarization During Total Solar Eclipses

Using a calibrated fisheye lens attached to a QHY550P polarization-sensitive camera, we aim to capture precise all-sky polarization images during the upcoming total solar eclipse on April 8, 2024. We are currently carrying out experiments to determine the distortion in the fisheye lens. Additionally, we are developing software to synchronize three LucidVision PHX-050S polarization-sensitive cameras, facilitating simultaneous image capture of the solar corona during the total solar eclipse. To ensure timing accuracy, our image acquisition laptop's system clock will be disciplined by a local stratum-1 NTP server hosted on a Raspberry Pi4 with a GPS connected to it. Post-capture, real-time image analysis, and exposure optimization algorithms will be employed. This research bridges computer science and astronomy, offering important insights into coronal astrophysics and atmospheric phenomena during total solar eclipses.   

Fitting the Galactic Center Gas Emission with CubeFit

The Center of our Galaxy is a complex, multi-scale, multi-phase environment. Thanks to its proximity, it allows us to peer into the galactic core at unrivaled resolution. The characterization of the interplay between different components in this region can shed light on the mechanisms regulating a galactic nucleus. In this study, we characterize the diffuse emission in the central ~10 x 5 pc of the Galaxy. To do so we analyzed data from the K-band multi-object spectrograph (KMOS) at the VLT in K-band, with the line-fitting algorithm CubeFit. This algorithm is very well-suited to characterize extended emission as it allows the preservation of the observation's resolution across the observed field and extracts low signal-to-noise lines. We characterized the ionized and molecular gas distribution and dynamics in this complex region through the extraction of maps of emission lines' physical parameters, such as line flux intensity, radial velocity, and width.   

Analyzing HST Fomalhaut b data using Non-negative Matrix Factorization

Originally believed to be an exoplanetary system, Fomalhaut A and its compation, Fomalhaut b, have undergone extensive investigation over the nature of the system. Prevailing theories support Fomalhaut b being a resultant dust cloud due to a collision between two planetesimals. To improve on exoplanetary imaging methods and further investigate Fomalhaut b, we decide to analyze the Fomalhaut system using nonnegative matrix factorization (NMF). Unlike previous examinations where point source-based post processing methods were used, NMF works best for detecting broad and spread sources such as disks and dust clouds. By using NMF, we work to examine Fomalhaut b and compare results from these previous works. Due to its iterative nature, NMF uses significant computing resources and compile times. To work around this, we implement Google's JAX NumPy and Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation to increase efficiency and speeds. By running code on accelerators (graphics processing unit) and JIT's ability to compile given functions all at once, this allows us to greatly improve on computing times. The data we use consists of different years of direct imaging of Fomalhaut through the Hubble Space Telescope coronagraph, that we then use NMF to process. After locating Fomalhaut b in these images, we then examine its make-up pixels for differences in relative size and brightness across different years.   

Comparative Analysis of CCD Camera Lidar Signal and Noise in Wildfire and Non-Fire Events for Wider Scattering Applications in Particulate Dense Atmospheric Conditions

This study investigates the performance of a novel CCD Camera Lidar (CLidar) system in

detection of laser light scattering by suspended particulates in the atmosphere in both typical

urban atmospheric conditions and during a heavily polluted atmospheric wildfire event. Signal

and noise effects are quantified to assess instrument capabilities for investigating atmospheric

phenomena under particulate dense atmospheric conditions. The signal to noise ratio is an

important statistic for all instrument detection systems, and noise is a consistent challenge in

lidar measurement of atmospheric aerosols (suspended particulates). This study represents an

important step in demonstrating the capabilities of a rugged and inexpensive bistatic lidar system

for field studies of atmospheric phenomena such as forest fires. Traditional lidar systems

typically employ a monostatic configuration with expensive detection systems that may be

fragile and require housings for temperature stabilization, etc. The CLidar system offers a robust,

field-ready design requiring no housings and employing an inexpensive astronomical CCD

camera as its detector, making it a good candidate for field studies of pollution events such as

wildfires. In this study we assess the instrument signal and noise parameters for CLidar

atmospheric image data taken in an urban setting with the camera detector 50-60 meters from the

laser transmitter on a clear night with data taken during the Canadian Wildfire smoke events of

June 2023. Results show the CLidar can be an effective tool to study both light aerosol loading

and dense particulate scattering events.   

A Tool for Evaluating Systematic Errors in Transmission-Mode X-ray Absorption Fine Structure due to Sample Preparation

X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (XAFS) is a premier method for studying the element-specific

local electronic and atomic structure. Several decades of effort have led to strong theoretical

modeling supported by community-standard tools for processing data and fitting to theory.

However, XAFS measurements themselves require care in sample preparation. We present here

the ERIS software package, with the goal of allowing easy estimates of the relationship between

sample preparation and the magnitude of resulting systematic errors when performing

transmission-mode XAFS. ERIS allows the user to load raw data with incident flux I0 and

transmitted flux IT and then evaluate the independent or combined effects of the two dominant

sample-preparation specific sources of systematic error: (1) the effects of sample thickness

combines with monochromator response function, and (2) the consequences of pinholes or other

sample irregularities. ERIS will help the XAFS community both by helping design more reliable

experiments and also by providing quantitative bounds for possible systematic errors.   

Testing Active Devices in Photonic Integrated Circuits and Progress Towards Building an Active Characterization Probe Station

Active photonic devices are the basis of optical signal modulation which is at the core of data exchange and communication worldwide. Photonic devices such as Mach-Zehnder-Modulators (MZM) and ring resonators need to be optically and electrically tested in order to understand their power consumption, efficiency and quality. Different from their passive counterparts, active devices grant the possibility to dynamically alter the medium through which light travels, offering a rich landscape to engineer and refine photonic phenomena. Central to this endeavor is the critical evaluation and characterization of these devices, an undertaking aimed at deducing the precise thermo-optic coefficient of silicon, a pivotal metric that delineates the modulations in its refractive index corresponding to temperature fluctuations. In this project, we established a secure framework to test photonic chips equipped with active devices, diverging from the reliance on standard optical or electrical cables customarily employed for injecting, controlling, and harvesting photons and electrons, this is called an unpackaged chip. Additionally, active devices in a packaged chip called the “Integrated Photonics Education Kit” (IPEK) were measured using an automated swept-wavelength optical characterization system designed for evaluating the spectral response of photonic chips. This characterization was performed at the Bridgewater State University’s Photonics Lab under the supervision of my research advisor, Dr. Samuel Serna, during a summer research initiative, with funding from the Adrian Tinsley Program (ATP). This research meticulously studies the optical response of an MZM as a result of thermal modulation. Since the thermo-optic coefficient is relatively high, a small increase in temperature can result in a large change in the refractive index of the waveguide, allowing the ability to thermally modulate the optical output. Around 90 sets of spectral data from 0-4.5 Volts with a range of 1480-1600 nm were taken in order to extract a thermo-optic coefficient of silicon of 2.291 x 10^-4K^-1 with an error of 27% away from the actual value of 1.8 x 10^-4K^-1. More details about the setup will be given during the presentation.   

Nonlinear Optics in the CHIRP Research group at Bridgewater State University

This work presents progress in nonlinear optics research being conducted at Bridgewater State University in our state-of-the-art Photonics & Optical Engineering laboratory conducted by undergraduate students under the mentorship of Dr. Samuel Serna in the Nonlinear Integrated Photonics CHIRP research group. We discuss research projects that rely on pulsed lasers and utilize dispersion engineering methods to study nonlinear processes [1]–such as the optical Kerr effect in waveguiding materials. We venture into uncharted territories by modulating pulse intensity to induce phase delays in propagating frequencies, paving the way for groundbreaking developments in integrated waveguide design. This work stands as a cornerstone in CHIRP’s portfolio, our combined efforts with experts from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in Japan have set a precedent in facilitating supercontinuum generation on a Photonic Integrated Circuit (PIC), fostering efficient entangled-photon sources on a PIC [2,3], realizing all-optical switching on a PIC, and pioneering the characterization of nonlinear constants in previously untested materials using Z-scan technique [4,5]. Furthermore, through our partnership with the Institut d'Optique in France we introduce D-Scan methods for dispersion characterization in various media and heterodyne detection strategies for the analysis of carrier dynamics in nonlinear materials [6]. We anticipate that our research will serve as a springboard for future innovations in photonics integrated circuits and hybrid material engineering.   

Progress on a new BSU Rb MOT Experiment using ColdQuanta MiniMOT for Research and Teaching Labs

Rubidium Magneto-Optical Traps are ubiquitous throughout the fundamental studies and applications of quantum physics. MOTs are used for precise measurements of time, gravitational fields, the study and creation of 1/2/3-D lattices for new applications and materials, a source of cold atoms for qubits in quantum computers, and even for fundamental tests of emergent space-time (quantum gravity) studies. [1]

Prior work toward a Rb MOT at Bridgewater State University had been based on using a single free space laser with a custom vacuum. In an effort to finally achieve the MOT for research purposes and potentially for a more realistic laser-cooling and trapping experiment in our teaching advanced labs, we have strived for a more streamlined approach.  This approach uses a commercially available ColdQuanta [2] MiniMOT system that includes a combined Rb gas source and vacuum chamber with a built in Helmholtz coil system that are both conveniently controlled by a central mini control unit. We created a new optical design with two separate Toptica [3] 780 nm tunable External Cavity Diode Lasers.   One of the ECDLs is the newer fiber coupled DLPro laser that we use as the pump laser.   This pump laser is used in combination with a fiber-coupled compact Doppler Free Saturated Absorption Spectroscopy Toptica COSY.  Here, as the DLPro scans over the Rb resonances, the DFSAS absorption signal is fed into the DLPro laser controller where it can be viewed, and the user can then software lock to a point on the DFSAS spectrum.   

The Rb MOT program supplements both of BSU's Physics and new (2022) Photonics and Optical Engineering programs offering undergraduate research and new generation advanced lab experiments that coincides and compliments new initiatives in both departments for Quantum Information Sciences for example new directions using cold atoms as qubits for quantum computing and simulations.[1]

[1.] Rushton, J. A., Matthew Aldous, and M. D. Himsworth. "Contributed review: The feasibility of a fully miniaturized magneto-optical trap for portable ultracold quantum technology." Review of Scientific Instruments 85.12 (2014).

[2.] https://coldquanta.com/systems/cold-atom-method/

[3.] https://www.toptica.com/products/tunable-diode-lasers/ecdl-dfb-lasers/dl-pro   

Search for a right-handed W boson decaying to a heavy neutral lepton

The goal of the project is to look for the right-handed W (WR) boson and a heavy neutrino. Even though only left-handed W bosons are predicted by the Standard Model, there is no fundamental reason why right-handed W bosons should not exist, and many extensions to the Standard Model predict the existence of WR. For this project, we analyzed simulated data from the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment to improve the event selection from the previous analysis done on Run2 data (collected from 2016-2018) in order to increase the sensitivity of the search for a WR boson. By applying high jet pT thresholds and b-tagging, we significantly improved the signal-background ratio, and the newly improved analysis will be used in the next version of the search (Run3).   

Classification of Biodegradable Chemicals Based on Their Structures and Physicochemical Properties Using Computational Simulations

The development and validation of reliable models for biodegradation are essential for us to assess the environmental impact of chemicals and to prioritize the development of sustainable chemicals. The biodegradability of a chemical depends on its chemical structure and physicochemical properties, such as molecular weight, solubility, and hydrophobicity. In the context of biodegradation, Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models are used for this research to predict the biodegradability of chemicals based on their chemical structure and physicochemical properties. This prediction aids in the design of more environmentally friendly compounds.

In this paper, experimental values of 1055 chemicals were collected for the prediction. Forty-one molecular descriptors and one experimental class were used as attribute information. Explanatory Data Analysis (EDA) and data visualization were performed to identify the type and structure of the data and get the descriptive statistics. The studied biodegradation model involves selecting a training set of compounds with known biodegradability and identifying relevant molecular descriptors, such as electronic, topological, and steric properties. These descriptors with machine learning are then used to develop a mathematical model that can predict the biodegradability of new compounds.

It showed that the accuracy and reliability of QSAR models depend on the quality and completeness of the training data and the relevance of the molecular descriptors used in the model.   

Thermal Modeling Techniques forMicrocalorimeter Transition Edge Sensor

Transistion Edge Sensor Microcalorimeters have become an extremely power-

ful tool for rare event searches in recent years (get a ref). By operating a

Superconductor in transition, we can detect fractional miliKelvin fluctuations.

The Ricochet Collaboration intends to implement an array of of such detectors,

along side a set of Germanium detectors, as a means of detecting Coherent

Elastic Neutrino Scattering. An important topic for such experiments is fully

understanding the detector, including both the electrical and thermal proper-

ties. Here we present a characterization technique for such systems. A Thermal

Model describes the energy flow in and out of the detector ensemble, which

includes the TES, the target, and all linking materials. This model is a set

of nonlinear coupled differential equations, expressing the temperature of each

component, each with its own heat capacity and thermal conductance to other

components. By modeling all the interactions, we can extract both the electri-

cal and thermal properties of this detector. One parameter that is relatively

easy to measure is the Complex Impedance. Finding an analytical solution for the complex impedance proves difficult, as it is dependent on both thermal and electrical parameters. Comparisons

between the complex impedance data and complex impedance simulations yield

well-measured detector parameters.   

An Efficient Computational Approach to solve Multi-Orbital Hubbard Model

The study presents a pioneering numerical method for computing Hamiltonian matrix elements of 2D multi-orbital Hubbard clusters. Leveraging Python programming and binary/Boolean logic, this approach offers an innovative solution for tackling the quantum mechanical behavior of interacting electrons in lattice structures. The method's reliability and accuracy are verified by comparing computed energy eigenvalues against exact analytical solutions of single orbital 2-site and 4-site clusters. Notably, this methodology excels in handling larger clusters, overcoming the computational limitations associated with conventional techniques. By utilizing binary integers to represent wavefunctions, the approach enhances computation speed while maintaining low memory usage. This advancement bears significant implications for research in condensed matter physics, quantum computing, and materials science, allowing for efficient exploration of complex 2-dimensional Hubbard clusters. The method's potential extends beyond multi-orbital Hubbard systems, offering a versatile tool for precise and expedient numerical computations across various physics domains.   

NUMERICAL MODEL TO OPTIMIZE SOLAR PANEL SHAPES

This project aims to explore the influence of solar panel orientation angles (alpha, theta, and phi) and shape on energy conversion efficiency. Through comprehensive analysis and visualization of energy reception at various orientations, we have identified optimal configurations for maximizing solar panel efficiency. Our model reveals that as the curvature of the solar panel approaches zero and the shape becomes flatter, the average efficiency reaches its peak value. This finding indicates that solar panel shapes with lower curvature are more effective in capturing solar energy when fixed on specific surface areas. In conclusion, this study offers valuable insights into solar panel design and their ideal orientation angles for achieving peak energy conversion efficiency.   

Data Science in Astrophysics -- An Overview

In this talk, we discuss how data science is a crucial driver of cutting-edge astrophysics research today, from planetary science to high-energy astrophysics.   

New Proof to Confirm the Correct Law, Hubble's Law, Using Physical and Mathematical Laws

Based on the structure of Universe, which has a voluminous and spherical shape; it can be written the velocity equation of the Universe and its components as follows:

Total velocity of each celestial object = Rotational velocity + Linear velocity

V_Tot = V_r + V_l ⇒ V_Tot = ω × r + L

Considering the structure of Prof. Hubble's formula, it can be concluded that the galaxies that move in direction of a similar ω (same direction) have zero relative linear velocity.

It means that the velocity of all galaxies on the same radiant, increase or decrease simultaneously.  So for all galaxies you see in the figure, we have:

V_Tot = ω × r ⇒ │V_Tot │ = │ ω │ × │ r │ ⇒ V = ωr

                                                 V_H = HD

In fact, it can be said that Hubble's law shows the algebraic value of the rotational velocity of celestial objects in Universe.   

Calculation of Gravitational Waves Frequency and Its Nature, Structure and Application

Since based on Saleh Theory the photon is the basis of the universe and every structure is made up of photons, the nature of gravitational waves also is the photon. And its structure is based on the motion of photons. In the gravitational waves, photons are separated from the stars Because of the effect of the planets, so that their external motion is intertwined in their internal motion or its superstring state, and form the long continuous series of photons. In fact, it can be said that in the solar plasma environment, the external motion of a photon converges with its internal motion and it leads to converging photons and forms a single superstring structure that is interconnected in a ring to ring feature and travels between the star and the planet.

In this paper, by using this structure, we will calculate the frequency of gravitational waves. The applications that can be achieved by using this structure and frequency are data transmission, tens, hundreds, thousands, … of times of the light speed in the universe, creating a speed close to the speed of light in spacecraft, creating artificial gravity in spacecraft, creating a gravity power using gravitational turbines, etc.   

New Explanation About the Creation of Galaxies

Since galaxies were discovered, scientists have been searching for their structure and ways of creation. The universe, after big bang, goes to lower density and the density of a black hole is extremely high, like protons (10¹⁸ kg/m³). So, although black holes are crate from stars, we can conclude that some of the nuclei of black holes could create from big bang moment. Taking into account that a black hole, like stars, has a surrounding area and the more compact center, we should think about the creation of this center from big bang moment. 

In this paper we are going to explain more about this structure and we will introduce three possible ways in which the black holes could be created.   

The Theory of Everything and Its New Mathematical and Physical Explanation

The universe around us consists of a collection of galaxies. Each galaxy is composed of other systems with numerous components. However, all of these galaxies have a common characteristic.

The lighter objects orbit around the heavier ones. The solar system also follows the same rule. But with considering  one of the most important celestial objects in the solar system, the Earth, we find out that the Earth consists of different materials and the materials made up of different Molecules too. The Molecule is nothing more than a collection of Atoms. But different atoms are composed of the same Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons, and the difference between atoms is in the number of their Electrons, Protons and Neutrons. Saleh Theory believes that Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons are composed of the same Photons, and their difference is in the number and positioning of them. The Electron is a hollow sphere with fewer numbers of Photons and bigger than the other ones, Proton is a compacted sphere with more number of Photons and smaller than the Electron, and Neutrons are the result of a Proton placement in the hollow center of the Electron's sphere.

On the other hand it can be said that all forces and all energies are actually different states of photons, for example, molecule (H₂O), that it has different states, like vapor, ice, hail, snow, rain, etc. In fact, all of them are the same water, so it can be said that all forces and energies are the same moving photons with different structures.   

Proving the Helical Motion of the Photon With Ten Reasons

In the Thomas Young experiment, interference patterns are observed and to justify them, they are considered light as a wave. But an Electron whose rest-mass has been proven to be constant also has an interference pattern in Young's double-slit experiment. Therefore, it seems that existence of interference patterns is related to the motion of particle not the nature of it. In this paper, we are going to introduce a helical motion for photon and prove it with 10 great reasons, such as the evanescent of red light respective to the blue light, the amount of electrical energy production in solar cells, possibility of existence of constant mass for photons, etc.   

A New Explanation for the Motion of photon; the Nested Helical Motion

Given that each moon orbits around its planet and each planet orbits around its central sun, the combination of orbits 1 and 2 creates a helical pathway for a moon. If a star’s orbit around its central galactic black hole, which is a closed curve path, is added to the moon's path, the final path will be a combination of paths 1, 2, and 3.  And, the path of moon will be a nested helical orbit. But by adding the new galactic motion (orbit number 4) to these three orbits; another helical orbit is added to them, and in fact, 3 helical orbits will be created in the form of nested orbits as a result of the effect of these 3 orbits. In general, if we have “n” paths, we have to imagine “n-1” nested helical orbits for that particular mass (moon, planet, star, etc.).

Notes:

1. The path of celestial object could be observed in different model:  

1^st model: If the observer looks at these helical orbits from the side, the motion of the celestial objects appears as a repeated closed sinusoidal motion.

2^nd model: But if the observer looks at the orbit from inside the rings, the image of a closed ring will be seen. Like the images of the orbits of the planets in the Solar System taken by the James Webb Space Telescope.

3^rd model: If the observer looks at the helical orbit in a vertical direction from the top or the bottom, the image will be a repeating nested helical in a closed curve.

4^th model: the model is a combination of all these that depending on the observer’s position will see different moods.

2. Depending on whether the helical orbit is clockwise or counter-clockwise, in general terms, it can be said that 95% of the motion of celestial objects in the universe is clockwise. 

If the direction of motion is clockwise from the observer's perspective, it means that it is moving away from the observer, and if the direction of motion is counter-clockwise from the observer's perspective, it means that the moving object is approaching the observer.

Therefore, all moving objects in the universe, from the smallest particles such as photons to the largest, like galaxies and clusters, have a nested helical motion.

Result: 

To show the nested helical motion path for a galaxy, which is a closed curve path with a twist, the image of the Laniakea Supercluster is a perfect and clear example.   

The Possibility of Introducing Photon as String by Several Reasons

As we know, a photon is emitted from an electron which has two rotational motions around itself and around the nucleus of atoms, and the emitted photon must have the effect of these two types of motion. Therefore, photon also has 2 motions; a small rotational motion, internal motion, and a large one, external motion (which creates the wavelength). The internal motion is a zigzag movement that takes place in 5 dimensions, and its external motion is a helical motion in 5 dimensions. Photon has also a rotational motion around itself, so photon motion has 5+5+1 dimensions.  Therefore, photon is a suitable option for the String. And its energy formula is:

½ m (c² - r²ω²) = hϑ

Where "r" is amplitude, "ω" is angular velocity and "ϑ" is the frequency of the corresponding spectrum. 

On the other hand if we consider a Solar System like our System and look at the relation between the Sun and the Earth, we see that the Earth always revolves around the Sun in a closed circular path. Due to this stable structure, the following relations can be considered: “The Kinetic Energy = Energy of Gravitational Wave or Gravitational Flux Energy.”

½ mv² =nhϑ ⇒ E_k = E_G

Given that the visible light is actually the same as radiant energy. So, “Radiant Energy = Electromagnetic Energy”

½ m_p (c² - r²ω²) = hϑ ⇒ E_R = E_vartheta

As the formula "E_N=Mc²" is valid in nuclear explosions and it means the total mass converts to photon particles, therefore we can assume that nuclear and radiation energy of photons is equal. So, “Nuclear Energy = Radiation Energy”

N½ m_p (c² - r²ω²) = Mc² ⇒ E_R = E_N

Where, “N” is the number of photons in an object with mass M.

Due to the fact that in transformers, magnetic energy is always converted into electrical energy, so: “Magnetic Energy = Electrical Energy”

q(VBsinθ)dcosα = RI²t ⇒ E_B = E_E

Therefore, it can be said that all energies are equal, equivalent and identical.

E_k= E_G = E_R = E_N = E_E = E_B = E_vartheta = E_U = ...

So, we can write the following comprehensive relation

E_et = N½ m_p (c² - r²ω²) = N′hϑ

In this article we will explain each part.