Session R1: Baryons: Birth and Death

Proton decay: present and future

The study of nucleon decay provides one of the few approaches to the problem of confronting grand unified theories with experimental data. This program has already been a success. The simplest unification model, minimal SU(5), has been ruled out by the experimental results. Current lower limits on the lifetime of the proton are in the range of 10$^{32}$ to 10$^{33}$ years. The search for nucleon decay requires massive detectors. A search with a sensitivity of 10$^{33}$ years requires a detector with approximately 10$^{33}$ nucleons. Since there are 6 x 10$^{29}$ nucleons per ton of material, this implies detectors of kiloton scale. Over the past two decades, there have been two types of nucleon decay detectors; Water Cerenkov detectors such as IMB, Kamiokande and Super-Kamiokande, and Fine Grain Sampling detectors such as KGF, NUSEX, Frejus and Soudan. I'll review the results from these detectors and the prospects for future detectors. While the data has not yet revealed proton decay, it has been able to show that still more sensitive searches are possible.   

New Results in Electroweak Baryogenesis

Electroweak Baryogenesis provides an attractive scenario for the generation of the baryon asymmetry, relying only on physics at the weak scale. Low energy supersymmetry models provide the right ingredients for the realization of this scenario. They also contain a natural dark matter candidate, leading to a natural explantion of the origin of matter in the Universe. In this talk, I will present recent results on the study of electroweak baryogenesis, putting particular emphasis on the possible experimental tests of this scenario in the near future.   

Session R2: Nuclear Physics with High Energy Accelerators

New Experimental Results from RHIC

In the past two years we have witnessed a leap forward in the understanding high temperature, high density, and strongly interacting matter produced in ultrarelativistic heavy ion collisions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Combining measurements of Au+Au, d+Au, and p+p collisions at energies up to $\sqrt{s_{NN}}$ = 200 GeV, the four RHIC experimental groups, STAR, PHENIX, PHOBOS, and BRAHMS, have produced impressive experimental evidence for the existence of a new form of matter. In this talk, I will present an overview of the latest experimental results from RHIC.   

The Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider: Present Performance and Future Capabilities

As the first hadron accelerator and collider consisting of two independent superconducting rings RHIC has operated with a wide range of beam energies and particle species. Machine operation and performance will be reviewed that includes high luminosity gold-on-gold and copper-on-copper collisions at design beam energy (100 GeV/u), asymmetric deuteron-on-gold collisions as well as high energy polarized proton-proton collisions (100 GeV on 100 GeV). Future operation with polarized protons at 500 GeV center-of-mass energy as well as plans for luminosity upgrades and the addition of high luminosity collisions with a 10 GeV electron beam will also be discussed.   

Recent Physics Results and the 12 GeV Upgrade at JLAB

Over the past years a large number of experiments have been carried out in the 3 experimental halls at Jlab. Recent highlights from this broad program will be presented. These include measurements of the nucleon and pion form factors at high $Q^2$, results on the polarised and unpolarised structure functions and first results from the parity experiment G0. With the planned upgrade to 12 GeV, a whole new area of physics will become accessible. Using a longitudinally polarised photon beam, a search for gluonic exitations leading to exotic hybrid mesons will be carried out using a new detector. Modifications of the existing detectors will allow to study the quark-gluon structure of hadrons and nuclei with unprecedented precision and exploit the so-called generalised parton distributions and the transverse momentum distributions of the quarks. Both the plans for the accelerator, the detectors and the physics potential at 12 GeV will be presented.   

Session R3: Space Plasmas

Observations of Magnetic Reconnection in the Earth's Magnetosphere

Magnetic reconnection is a universal plasma process which converts stored magnetic energy into fast flows and energetic particles. It is the most important process by which the solar wind enters the Earth’s magnetosphere where the solar wind energy is subsequently dissipated in auroras and magnetic storms. The magnetosphere provides a unique opportunity to study the reconnection process by in-situ measurements, thereby allowing quantitative comparison with theory. In this talk I will present highlights of recent findings on the large-scale consequences of reconnection in the magnetosphere, as well as fortuitous observations of microphysical processes in the minuscule diffusion region where reconnection takes place.   

The structure of parallel electric fields in collisionless plasmas: ionosphere and magnetospheric observations

It was long believed that electric fields parallel to the background magnetic field could not exist in a collisionless plasma. Ionospheric rocket observations of accelerated electrons in the Earth's aurora provided the first indirect evidence for the occurrence of a quasi-static parallel potential drop. The S3-3 satellite obtained the first direct measurements of the parallel electric field, including observations of solitary waves, double layers and oblique double layers. Data from the FAST and Polar satellites dramatically enhanced understanding of the structure of parallel electric fields in both the upward and downward field-aligned current regions in the auroral zone and their role in acceleration of electrons and ions to high energies. Parallel electric fields are also observed higher altitudes in the magnetosphere in association with narrow boundaries and with reconnection at the magnetopause and magnetotail. I will review satellite observations and recent simulations with a focus on the occurrence of large potential drops in small-scale size nonlinear structures and summarize our current understanding of parallel electric fields in the Earth's magnetosphere and implications for particle acceleration and dissipation processes in other astrophysical plasma systems.   

Session R4: Gravitational Aspects of String Theory

Black Rings

I will describe recent developments regarding black holes in five dimensions with horizon topology $S^1 \times S^2$, including aspects of their microscopic description within string theory.   

Stringy Perspectives on Gravity and Geometry

The idea that quantum gravity should lead to strong fluctuations of geometry and topology is an old one. I will review the recent progress in understanding space as an emergent concept in string theory.   

Session R5: Communicating Physics to Non-Physicists

Engaging High School Students in Research Through QuarkNet

QuarkNet is a national program of Education and Outreach in Particle Physics. A hallmark of QuarkNet has been research experiences in physics for nontraditional participants at Centers located in universities and national laboratories across the US and Puerto Rico. Through the first five years of program operation these participants have been high school teachers. New in the sixth program year (2004) are high school students who have received immersive research experiences at several QuarkNet Centers. This initiative will grow significantly in future years. An overview of the program operation with high school students will be provided, and examples will be presented of how research scientists such as faculty and graduate students can engage the interest and participation of high school students in physics research projects.   

Filling the Void: Speaking to the Others

A survey of subscribers to science magazines reveals that roughly 80\% of the audience is white, male, well-educated and over forty. During a 20-year career as a freelance writer, Margaret Wertheim has been developing ways to communicate about the physical sciences to non-canonical audiences. For ten years in her native Australia, she wrote columns about science and technology for women's magazines. For the Australian Broadcasting Corporation she wrote and directed a six-part television series, called Catalyst, aimed at teenage girls. Wertheim has written for almost every conceivable medium, including interactive video. In Los Angeles she writes the Quark Soup column for the LA Weekly, sister paper to the Village Voice, and is a regular contributor to the Los Angeles Times and New York Times Science Section. She has recently established The Institute For Figuring, a maverick organization that presents lectures and exhibitions about the poetic dimensions of science and mathematics. In this talk she will discuss how to communicate with audiences who have never heard of Schr\"{o}dinger's Cat.   

From Lab to Legislation: Communicating Science to Congress

After finishing my physics PhD in 2003, I spent a year as a science policy advisor to U.S. Representative Edward J. Markey of Massachusetts. My duties included summarizing developments and giving advice to Rep. Markey on issues ranging from nuclear proliferation to space exploration to radiological materials security. I worked with him and his staff on writing legislation, speeches, press releases, and opinion columns, and met a variety of scientists, diplomats, military officers, and government officials along the way. In this talk I will discuss some of the lessons learned by myself and the 30 other scientists sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) to spend a year working in Congress. As quickly became clear, it was less our specific scientific knowledge that was valuable to the legislators we worked for, but rather our ability to communicate with both scientists and politicians, and to help make each group a little less inscrutable to the other. Although many scientists would like to ignore it, the impact of Washington policymakers on American science is enormous, and programs like the Congressional Science Fellows are vital in helping to make that impact as positive as possible.   

Session R6: Few Body Collisions

Collisions with molecular targets

Something interesting and often unexpected happens when you excite a reaction close to its threshold. In threshold photoionisation the target is ionised just above a reaction onset. Photoelectrons are produced with energies that are typically in the range from zero to a few meV and these are detected by analysers tuned to these low energies. The studies are valuable because they give both dynamic and spectroscopic information. They also have a number of experimental advantages. Close to threshold, the low energy photoelectrons move only slowly away from the ion core allowing ample time for electron correlation effects to become dominant. These correlation effects are particularly important for double photoionisation Also, close to threshold, indirect processes can become dominant. In the case of molecules this can lead to the observation of vibrational excitation well outside the Frank-Condon region. On the experimental side, the threshold technique offers the advantages of very high resolution and simultaneously very high detection efficiency. This means that they can give spectroscopic information at the rotational level. The very high resolution is well matched to the high photon resolution provided by current synchrotron radiation sources. The very high detection efficiency facilitates the use of coincidence techniques that are required for the study of double ionisation, where both photoelectrons are detected simultaneously.   

Ionization Processes by Ion Impact: the Role of Multiple Electron Scattering

Ionization of atoms by charged particle impact is a fundamental process. It is not exotic, it does not need high energies, it is a common process with many practical aspects. Still it is a challenge for theory, representing a (minimum) three-body problem with long-range forces. The measured double (or more) differential spectra of the emitted electrons (and outgoing ions) provide detailed information about the ionization process. These spectra are often rich in characteristic structures, which can be associated with different collision mechanisms. In the present talk, we provide a brief sketch of the most common structures and the underlying mechanisms, and focus our attention to a higher-order process. This is the so-called Fermi-shuttle acceleration [1,2], where the electron is scattered forward and backward by the incoming heavy projectile ion and the target core before being ejected. Due to the repeated collisions, the electron can be accelerated to high energies. In recent works [3,4], evidence has been provided for double (projectile-target, P-T), triple (P-T-P) and quadruple (P-T-P-T) scattering sequences in ion-atom collisions. Surprisingly, our latest measurements and the corresponding CTMC calculations have shown that accelerating multiple electron scattering can even dominate electron emission for slow ion impact, providing a large amount of unexpectedly high-energy electrons. This finding may get relevance in many cases, where ions are stopped in solids or in biological tissues. \textit{Supported by the Hungarian OTKA Fund (T045905)} [1] S. Suarez \textit{et al}, Phys. Rev. Lett. \textbf{77,} 474 (1996). [2] U. Bechthold \textit{et al}, Phys. Rev. Lett. \textbf{79,} 2034 (1997). [3] B. Sulik \textit{et al}, Phys. Rev. Lett. \textbf{88,} 073201 (2002). [4] B. Sulik \textit{et al}, Nucl. Inst. and Meth. B \textbf{212}, 32 (2003).   

Collision with surfaces

New materials are increasingly complex and to gain the insight necessary for their intelligent engineering, entirely new experimental approaches are needed. In the past 20 years, a steadily increasing number of experiments on atoms and molecules have demonstrated the capability of few body collisions to investigate complex systems with sensitivity and specificity well beyond the limits imposed by conventional electron spectroscopies. Over the past decade or so, electron-electron coincidence spectroscopies, an experimental tool originally developed to study few body collision dynamics, have emerged as a powerful technique for obtaining detailed information on surfaces and overlayers. The class of one photon IN two electrons OUT experiments will be discussed with an emphasis on grazing incidence geometry that is expected to be particularly suited for studying system with reduced dimensionality. The crucial question of which is the dominant mechanism that leads to ejection of correlated electron pairs from the surface will be addressed. By the help of selected examples, it will be shown that, depending on the kinematics chosen, different kind of sensitivity and specificity can be exploited.   

Session R7: Top Quark Pair Production I

Measurement of the Top Quark Pair Production Cross Section in the Di-Muon+Jets Channel at D{\O}

Measurement of the top quark pair ($t\bar{t}$) production cross section at hadron colliders can be used to test perturbative QCD predictions. Within the Standard Model, the top quark almost always decays to a $W$ boson and a $b$ quark. We present a measurement of the $t\bar{t}$ production cross section at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV in $p\bar{p}$ collisions using data collected by the D\O\ experiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. We consider the di-muon+jets final state and discuss the selection criteria, efficiencies and background contributions.   

Measurement of the Top Quark Pair Production Cross Section in the All-Hadronic Channel at D{\O}

Measurement of the top quark pair ($t\bar{t}$) production cross section at hadron colliders can be used to test perturbative QCD predictions. Within the Standard Model, the top quark almost always decays to a $W$ boson and a $b$ quark. We present studies for the measurement of the $t\bar{t}$ production cross section at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV in $p\bar{p}$ collisions using data collected by the D\Oexperiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. We consider the all-hadronic channel, characterized by six jets (two of them $b$~jets) in the final state, and discuss the techniques being developed for an optimal separation between signal and the overwhelming QCD multijet background. These involve $b$-tagging by means of a secondary vertex tagger, as well as Neural Networks to exploit the differences between signal and background in event topology.   

Measurement of the Top Quark Pair Production Cross Section in the Electron+Muon+Jets Channel at D{\O}

Measurement of the top quark pair ($t\bar{t}$) production cross section at hadron colliders can be used to test perturbative QCD predictions. Within the Standard Model, the top quark almost always decays to a $W$ boson and a $b$ quark. We present a measurement of the $t\bar{t}$ production cross section at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV in $p\bar{p}$ collisions using data collected by the D\O\ experiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. We consider the electron+muon+jets final state and discuss the selection criteria, efficiencies and background contributions.   

Measurement of the Top Quark Pair Production Cross Section in the Di-Electron+Jets Channel at D{\O}

Measurement of the top quark pair ($t\bar{t}$) production cross section at hadron colliders can be used to test perturbative QCD predictions. Within the Standard Model, the top quark almost always decays to a $W$ boson and a $b$ quark. We present a measurement of the $t\bar{t}$ production cross section at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV in $p\bar{p}$ collisions using about 370 pb$^{-1}$ of data collected by the D\O\ experiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. We consider the di-electron+jets final state and discuss the selection criteria, efficiencies and background contributions.   

Measurement of the Top Pair Production Cross Section in the Electron+Jets Channel at D\O\ Using Topological Information

Measurement of the top quark pair ($t\bar{t}$) production cross section at hadron colliders can be used to test perturbative QCD predictions. Within the Standard Model, the top quark almost always decays to a $W$~boson and a $b$~quark. We present a measurement of the $t\bar{t}$ production cross section at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV in $p\bar{p}$ collisions using approximately 370 pb$^{-1}$ of data collected by the D\O\ experiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. This measurement is performed in the electron+jets final state and exploits the differences in event topology between the $t\bar{t}$ signal and the background.   

Measurement of the Top Pair Production Cross Section in the Muon+Jets Channel at D\O\ Using Topological Information

Measurement of the top quark pair ($t\bar{t}$) production cross section at hadron colliders can be used to test perturbative QCD predictions. Within the Standard Model, the top quark almost always decays to a $W$~boson and a $b$~quark. We present a measurement of the $t\bar{t}$ production cross section at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV in $p\bar{p}$ collisions using approximately 370 pb$^{-1}$ of data collected by the D\O\ experiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. This measurement is performed in the muon+jets final state and exploits the differences in event topology between the $t\bar{t}$ signal and the background.   

Measurement of the Top Pair Production Cross Section in Lepton+Jets Final States at D\O\ Using Lifetime b-Tagging

Measurement of the top quark pair ($t\bar{t}$) production cross section at hadron colliders can be used to test perturbative QCD predictions. Within the Standard Model, the top quark almost always decays to a $W$~boson and a $b$~quark. We present a measurement of the $t\bar{t}$ production cross section at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV in $p\bar{p}$ collisions using approximately 230 pb$^{-1}$ of data collected by the D\O\ experiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. The $t\bar{t}$ production cross section is measured in lepton+jets final states based on the application of two different lifetime-tagging techniques.   

Measurement of the Top Quark Transverse Momentum Spectrum at D{\O}

We present a measurement of the transverse momentum spectrum of top quarks produced in pairs ($t\bar{t}$) in $p\bar{p}$ collisions. This spectrum is sensitive to potential contributions from non-standard $t\bar{t}$ production mechanisms. Within the Standard Model the top quark decays into a $W$ boson and a $b$ almost 100\% of the time. In this analysis we consider $t\bar{t}$ candidates selected in the lepton+jets final state, from data collected by the D\O\ experiment during Run II of the Fermilab Tevatron collider. To optimize the resolution of the transverse momentum measurement, we perform a constrained kinematic fit to the $t\bar{t}$ hypothesis, making use of b-tagging to further reduce the combinatorial background.   

Session R8: Higgs

Higgs Boson Production with a Single Bottom Quark at Hadron Colliders

Recently, the production of Higgs bosons with bottom quarks has received much interest from both the theoretical and experimental communities. This interest is due to the fact that, for large values of $\tan\beta$, $bh$ production is expected to be a viable discovery mode for supersymmetric Higgs bosons at present and future colliders. Currently, there are two approaches to calculating the theoretical prediction of $bh$ production. In the $\emph{five-flavor-number scheme}$, potentially large logarithms, which arise from collinear $g\tob\bar{b}$ splitting, can be resummed by a bottom quark Parton Distribution Function. Alternatively, in the $\emph{four-flavor-number scheme}$, one can compute the cross section for $p\bar{p},pp \to bh$ at fixed order in QCD without resumming higher order collinear logarithms. The $bh$ production mode is actively being searched for at the Tevatron, by both D0 and CDF collaborations, and, thus, precise predictions for total and differential cross sections are imperative. We have calculated the cross section for $p\bar{p},pp \to bh$ at next-to-leading order (NLO) in QCD using the four-flavor-number scheme and present our results for the total cross section and distributions. We also compare our fixed-order results for the cross section and distributions with those of the resummed calculation using the five-flavor-number scheme and show that the NLO cross sections calculated in the two schemes are compatible within the theoretical uncertainty.   

Weak Boson Fusion Studies with H$\diamondsuit $ZZ$\diamondsuit $ll$\nu \nu $ and H$\diamondsuit \tau \tau \diamondsuit $l$\nu \nu $ for CMS Experiment

We report the studies done, by the University of Iowa CMS group, on the sensitivity of the CMS detector for the discovery of the Standard Model Higgs Boson. Signal and background rates as well as the final signal significances are evaluated for H$\diamondsuit $ZZ$\diamondsuit $ll$\nu \nu $ and H$\diamondsuit \tau \tau \diamondsuit $l$\nu \nu $ channels via vector boson fusion, in the mass range between 120GeV and 1TeV.   

Higgs mass from extended spin model

Unification ideas motivate the formulation of field equations on an extended matrix-spin space. Demanding that the Poincare symmetry be maintained, one derives scalar symmetries that are associated with flavor and gauge groups. Boson and fermion solutions are obtained with a fixed representation. A field theory can be equivalently written and interpreted in terms of elements of such a space and is similarly constrained. At 5 + 1 dimensions, one obtains isospin and hypercharge SU(2)L X U(1) symmetries, their vector carriers, two-flavor charged and chargeless leptons, and scalar particles. Mass terms produce breaking of the symmetry to an electromagnetic U(1), a Weinberg's angle with sin2(th{\_}W) = 0.25, and additional information on the respective coupling constants. The particles' underlying spin symmetry gives information on their masses; one reproduces the Standard Model ratio MZ/MW, and predicts possible Higgs masses of MH $\sim $ 114 and MH $\sim $ 161 GeV, at tree level. The more accurate (9+1)-dimensional extension is also considered.   

Search for New Physics and the Higgs Boson in the $b\bar{b}$ plus Missing $E_T$ Signature

Using the data taken by the CDF detector in Run II of the Tevatron, we have analysed events containing two jets and missing transverse energy in order to estimate the possible presence of new physics. At least one of the jets is required to be tagged as originating from a b quark in order to enhance the presence of $b\bar{b}$ pairs. The analysis is optimized for the search for a light Higgs boson produced in association with a Z boson decaying into a pair of neutrinos. Preliminary results, based on an integrated luminosity of about $300$ pb$^{-1}$, are presented as well as future plans for the search for the Higgs boson in this channel.   

Search for Neutral MSSM Higgs Boson Production via the Process $p\bar{p} \to bb+A/h/H \to b\bar{b} b \bar{b}$

We are presenting a search using CDF Run II data for neutral MSSM Higgs bosons via the process $p\bar{p}\to b\bar{b} +A/h/H \to b\bar{b}b\bar{b}$. In the MSSM, Higgs production in association with $b$-quarks is enhanced at large $\tan \beta$, providing a good opportunity for observing the Higgs boson at the TeVatron. The current status of the search, conducted using triple b-tagged events from the CDF Run II data sample, will be shown. The analysis is based on an integrated luminosity of about 200 pb$^{-1}$ of CDF data.   

Multiphoton Production and a Search for Fermiophobic Higgs in $p\bar{p}$ collisions at $\sqrt{s}=1.96$ TeV

A preliminary cross section for the inclusive multiphoton production is presented, as measured by the Run II D\O\ detector at the Fermilab Tevatron $p\bar{p}$ collider. Photon candidates with transverse momenta greater than 25 GeV$/c$ and within the pseudorapidity of $|\eta| < 3$ are considered. Selection criteria for photon candidates as well as the estimation of background contributions from QCD are presented. Event topologies with up to four photons in the final state which are relevant for fermiophobic Higgs boson searches in two Higgs doublet and triplet models are emphasized. Preliminary limits on the mass of fermiophobic Higgs boson are set.   

Search for SM Higgs boson using large missing $E_T$ plus b-jets final state at D{\O}

We report on the search for the Standard Model Higgs Boson produced in association with the $Z$ Boson at the Tevatron $p\bar{p}$ Collider. In particular, we study the $p\bar{p} \rightarrow ZH \rightarrow \nu\nu b \bar{b}$ channel, which is one of the most sensitive in light Higgs Boson searches because of the large $Z\rightarrow \nu \nu$ branching ratio. The analysis starts from a sample of multi-jet events with large missing $E_T$, from where we select events with two b-jets and reconstruct the mass of the system. After properly subtracting the backgrounds, we measure the upper limit for $ZH$ production cross section based on L=260~$\mbox{pb}^{-1}$ of the data.   

Session R9: Cosmic Rays I

Measurement of the HiRes Stereo Composition

Extensive air showers are induced when ultra-high energy cosmic ray particles enter the Earth's atmosphere. The distribution of depths where the number of particles in the air showers reach a maximum (defined as $X_{max}$) can be used to measure the composition. We present a method of directly measuring the flux of various hypothesized compositions by comparing Monte Carlo calculations of $X_{max}$ with the distribution of $X_{max}$ for data.   

A deconvolution technique, to measure proton cross-section at ultra-high energies using cosmic ray data.

Extensive air showers are induced when ultra-high energy cosmic ray particles enter the earth atmosphere. The distribution of the depth of the air shower maxima can be used to measure the p-air inelastic cross-section. We propose a novel deconvolution measurement technique. We use Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate the technique, and the statistical and systematic errors.   

Search for Correlated High Energy Cosmic Ray Events with CHICOS

We present the results of a search for time correlations in high energy cosmic ray data (primary $E > 10^{14}$~eV) collected by the California HIgh school Cosmic ray ObServatory (CHICOS) array. Data from 60 detector sites spread over an area of 400~km$^2$ were studied for evidence of isolated events separated by more than 1~km with coincidence times ranging from 1~$\mu$sec up to 1~second. The results are consistent with the absence of excess coincidences except for a $2.9 \sigma$ excess observed for coincidence times less than 10~$\mu$sec. We report upper limits for the coincidence probability as a function of coincidence time.   

Lateral and Time Distributions of Extensive Air Showers for CHICOS

We report results of a series of detailed Monte-Carlo calculations to determine the density and arrival-time distribution of charged particles in extensive air showers. We have parameterized both distributions as a function of distance from the shower axis, energy of the primary cosmic-ray proton, and incident zenith angle. Muons and electrons are parameterized separately. These parameterizations can be easily used in maximum-likelihood reconstruction of air showers. Calculations were performed for primary energies between $10^{18}$ and $10^{21}eV$ and zenith angles out to approximately $50^{\circ}$. The calculations are appropriate for the California High School Cosmic Ray Observatory: a 400 $\mbox{km}^{2}$ array of scintillation detectors in Los Angeles county. The average elevation of the array is approximately 250 meters above sea level. Currently 64 of 90 sites are operational. The array will be completed this year. We thank the NSF, the CURE program at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the SURF program at Caltech, and the Chinese University of Hong Kong.   

Status and Physics Objectives of the Pierre Auger Observatory

The Pierre Auger Observatory is designed to explore the upper end of cosmic ray energy spectrum, particles with energies exceeding $10^{19}$~eV. The detector consists of two complementary components: an air shower array of 1600 water Cherenkov detectors, and a fluorescence detector consisting of 24 wide-angle Schmidt telescopes. The surface detectors are distributed across an area of 3000 km$^2$, sampling the air shower particles that reach the ground. The telescopes are positioned at four sites around the ground array and observe the fluorescence light emitted by the air shower as it develops in the atmosphere.The simultaneous observation with two independent sub-detectors allows for a reduction of the systematic uncertainties. In this talk the status of construction and the main physics goals of the Pierre Auger Observatory will be reviewed.   

The Surface Detector Array of the Pierre Auger Observatory

The Pierre Auger cosmic ray observatory is being constructed in Malargue, Argentina with the goal of probing the origins and physics of the highest energy cosmic rays. The rapidly growing surface detector array of the observatory has been in continuous operation for more than one year, already accumulating a large physics data set . In this talk we discuss the calibration and operation of the water Cherenkov surface detectors, and the reconstruction and analysis of the cosmic ray shower data.   

The Fluorescence Detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory

The Auger fluorescence detector is optimized to measure showers with energy above 10$^{19}$~eV over an area of 3000 km$^{2}$. The design calls for a system capable of detect a few tens of Watts of ultraviolet light produced more than 25 km away. To achieve that, large aperture mirrors and a extremely sensitive light detector system are required. This paper describes the telescope optics, light detection system, as well as calibration techniques and reconstruction algorithms. Examples of reconstructed events will be shown.   

Hybrid Performance of the Pierre Auger Observatory

The Pierre Auger Observatory detects ultra-high energy cosmic rays combining two complementary air shower techniques. The designed observation in coincidence of particles at ground and the associated fluorescence light generated in the atmosphere is achieved with a large array of water Cherenkov detectors coupled with air fluorescence detector sites. The combination of fluorescence and ground array measurements provides reconstruction of the shower axis geometry with unprecedented accuracy, which in turn yields improvements in measurements of all other observables. Timing information from even a single surface detector can much improve the geometric reconstruction, thus lowering the energy threshold for hybrid events to well below the surface detector design threshold of 10~EeV. In these hybrid events, the simultaneous independent measurements of longitudinal and transverse shower observables via the two techniques give powerful crosschecks on the data analysis and better control over systematic uncertainties in the energy measurement. In this paper the hybrid reconstruction approach and its performance are described.   

Search for Point Sources of Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays

We present the results of a search for cosmic ray point sources at energies above $4.0\times 10^{19}$\,eV in the combined data sets recorded by the AGASA and HiRes stereo experiments. The analysis is based on a maximum likelihood ratio test using the probability density function for each event rather than requiring an a priori choice of a fixed angular bin size. No statistically significant clustering of events consistent with a point source is found.   

Session R10: Gravitational Wave Detection

Minimizing the Mechanical Loss in Fused Silica and Lowering the Thermal Noise in Advanced LIGO

We have measured the mechanical loss in fused silica from samples spanning a wide range of geometries and resonant frequencies in order to model the known variation of the loss with frequency and surface-to-volume ratio. Our model matches the data well and agrees with earlier work on the frequency dependence of the loss. This improved understanding of the mechanical loss has contributed significantly to the design of advanced interferometric gravitational wave detectors, which require ultra-low loss materials for their test mass mirrors. Fused silica has been chosen as the test mass material for Advanced LIGO. Noise estimates for Advanced LIGO show the mirror substrate thermal noise should be well below the quantum noise of the laser. However thermal noise in the mirror coatings is predicted to contribute significantly to the total noise budget in the central frequency region of 30-500 Hz. Work on reducing the mirror coating thermal noise is ongoing.   

Acceleration Noise Measurements for LISA

The close spacing between the proof mass and the housing in the LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna) spacecraft has been a concern as there may be spurious feeble forces. Such forces may limit the performance of the gravity wave detector at frequencies below 3 mHz and must be studied experimentally. We are performing ultra sensitive torsion balance tests to investigate such effects. Our torsion pendulum and a nearby plate are designed to simulate the LISA proof mass with its adjacent housing surface. We study torque noise on the pendulum as a function of separation between the surfaces. In order to exceed the LISA requirement we are probing the acceleration noise at much closer separations, than those planned for LISA. We have taken data at separations as small as 0.15 mm.   

Observing Massive Black Hole Binary Coalescences with LISA

Massive black hole binary coalescences are among the most important astrophysical sources of gravitational waves to be observed by LISA. The ability to observe and characterize such sources with masses $\sim 10^5 M_\odot$ and larger at high redshifts is strongly dependent on the sensitivity of LISA in the low frequency (0.1 mHz and below) regime. We examine LISA's ability to observe these systems at redshifts up to $z \sim 10$ for various proposed values of the low frequency sensitivity, under current assumptions about the merger rates. The discussion will focus on the astrophysical information that can be gained by these observations.   

Ridgelines and Catastrophes: Analysis of LISA signals reveals how source parameter estimates sharpen non-linearly as observed signal duration increases

We have used a grid search technique to analyze simulated LISA gravitational wave signals to extract source parameters. We present parameter space graphs that illustrate the highly non-Gaussian nature of the probability distributions, and the high degree of correlation among various parameters. These correlations show up as ``ridgelines'' in the multidimensional parameter space. These graphs also illustrate the highly nonlinear rate with which the accuracy of the parameters extracted increases as a function of the duration of signal observed. The accuracy levels show plateaus followed by sudden jumps, which mathematicians call ``catastrophes.'' These extracted parameters can be used to perform the Ryan* test of the black hole uniqueness theorem. Results obtained to date support estimates that the Ryan test may be performed to an accuracy of better than 10{\%} if favorable cases of extreme-mass-ratio inspirals are observed for periods exceeding one year. Analysis of simulated LIGO cases suggests much less precise results for parameter extraction and much weaker limits on black hole non-uniqueness. \newline \newline * Ryan, F. D., \textit{Phys. Rev. D} \textbf{52}, 5707 (1995).   

Session R11: Physics Education

Gravitational Wave Outreach

Science outreach tied to an active research field is rich in possibilities and fraught with danger as one strives to find a balance between content and comprehension. I will discuss outreach programs at the NSF Center for Gravitational Wave Physics that inspire interest in science, enhance traditional education efforts, and support young scientists and established researchers to develop varied communication skills, and adopt education and public outreach as part of their professional culture.   

LIGO: Creating enhancements to the undergraduate physics experience

Over the past four years we have initiated a program of research and educational outreach between the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) and the Department of Physics at Southern University-Baton Rouge that has enabled undergraduate physics majors to participate in a broad array of research based activities. Our emphasis has been on the integration of research into the educational experience of our physics majors. Specifically, students participate in research at the LIGO Livingston Observatory during the summers with LIGO scientists in addition to year round faculty-supervised research on campus. In continuing their research on campus students may also obtain academic credit toward graduation by enrolling in a research course, receiving Honors College Credit and/or incorporating the research into undergraduate theses. Through the LIGO Science Education Center (SEC) Outreach Project, we are revamping parts of our undergraduate curriculum to emphasize LIGO science particularly as relates to K-12 teacher preparation. Examples of activities will be presented.   

The LIGO Science Education Center: Partnering Labs, Universities, Education Agencies and Informal Learning Centers

A program is described for a seamless approach to informal and formal science teaching and learning built around a Science Education Center to be located at LIGO, Livingston, Louisiana. Under an NSF collaborative grant, four institutions are partnering to create an exemplary educational resource to promote science learning and understanding. The Science Education Center will feature approximately 40 interactive exhibits developed by The Exploratorium of San Francisco illustrating science concepts underlying the LIGO program. Southern University, a principal producer of teachers in Louisiana, leads pre-service teacher training. LA GEAR UP, a statewide educational reform agency, guides in-service teacher Professional Development. Our goals: (1) communicate LIGO-related science concepts to the public; (2) strengthen pre-service and in-service science teaching; (3) reach a broad audience of students in the Louisiana region; and (4) create a national model for ways scientists, educators, state education programs, and informal learning centers can collaborate to support science education. This work supported by NSF grants PHY-0107417 and PHY-0355454.   

A Conceptual Physics Course in General Relativity and Cosmology

We have designed, implemented, assessed, and revised a new conceptual physics course at the University of New Mexico. Using the NRC/NAS report ``Connecting Quarks with the Cosmos'' (2003) as a guide, we pared down the 11 questions to six based on a student poll. The instructor (MZ) reconceptualized these six into a one- semester course focused on general relativity and cosmology, while taking into account known misconceptions research. The full implementation of an active- learning version took place in Spring 2003. The classes contained about 2/3 males and 1/3 females, about 60\% ``freshmen.'' Some 50% took the course to meet a requirement. Students entered with a wide variety of math backgrounds, with the men reporting more advanced courses. We report on assessments to probe the success of the course based on our learning outcomes. In math and science aptitude, females and males ranked themselves the same at the start of the course; men felt more confident at the end. Using a conceptual diagnostic test as a pre- and post assessment, we found that males outscored the females pre- and post, but the normalized gains were the same. The normalized gains on Force Concept Inventory items was 0.2; for general relativity and cosmology ones, 0.5.   

Understanding the Coulomb and Newton Force Laws

In undergraduate first-year physics courses, the Coulomb and Newton force laws are typically presented as empirically- derived, a consequence of fitting observations to a mathematical model. Here, a simple argument based on natural assumptions make plausible the fact that one charge (mass) is multipled times the other charge (mass). Further, a generic geometric argument yields the dependence on the inverse square of the distance between the two bodies.   

Derivation of Schrodinger and Dirac Equations

The Schrodinger equation can be derived from first principles, contrary to the assertions offered in textbooks. To be consistent with the framework of quantum mechanics the dynamics must be based on the averaged energy relation. Accordingly, each eigenfunction is a specific superposition of plane wave states that fulfills the averaged energy relation. Alternatively, starting with the averaged energy relation, the Schrodinger equation is obtained to be the condition the particle eigenfunction must satisfy, at each space-time point, in order to fulfill the averaged energy relation. The same method is applied to derive the Dirac equation involving potential terms. We emphasize the difference between the free particle equations (which have single plane wave eigenfunctions) and the complete Schrodinger and Dirac equations, and we point out the inappropriateness of the heuristic derivations.   

Modifying ``Six Ideas that Shaped Physics'' for a Life-Science major audience at Hope College

The ``Six Ideas That Shaped Physics'' textbook has been adapted and used for use in the algebra-based introductory physics course for non-physics science majors at Hope College. The results of the first use will be presented. Comparison of FCI for pre and post test scores will be compared with results from 8 years of results from both the algebra-based course and the calculus-based course (when we first adopted ``Six Ideas that Shaped Physcs" for the Calculus-based course). In addition, comparison on quantitative tests and homework problems with prior student groups will also be made. Because a large fraction of the audience in the algebra-based course is life-science majors, a goal of this project is to make the material relevant for these students. Supplemental materials that emphasize the connection between the life sciences and the fundamental physics concepts are being be developed to accompany the new textbook. Samples of these materials and how they were used (and received) during class testing will be presented.   

Implementation, Analysis, and Assessment of On-Line Teaching Evaluations

This two-year project involved the introduction of a new, on-line teaching evaluation that enables students to anonymously assess their teachers and courses via computer. A pilot program, during fall 2003, involved 14 faculty volunteers. Student participation was voluntary but was strongly encouraged via both student congress and the student newspaper. Resulting in moderate to strong success, the pilot program was then extended to include the entire College of Liberal Arts of Hamline University during the spring and fall of 2004. The on-line teaching-evaluation program has since been introduced into several other colleges of the University. The evaluation instrument, student compliance, analysis of data, and assessment will be discussed. Comparisons are made (1) by grade received, (2) by class standing, (3) by ethnicity, and (4) of science versus non-science courses. In addition to common questions answered by all students, the on-line form allows instructors to add course-specific questions. Additional disciplinary-breadth assessment questions were added for the fall 2004 evaluation. Noteworthy problems that resulted from the introduction of on-line teaching evaluations will be discussed along with successes.   

Personal Notification Service from the ADS Abstract Service

The ADS provides a search system for over 4 million records. The data are organized in 4 databases, Astronomy/Planetary Sciences, Physics/Geophysics, Instrumentation, and ArXiv Preprints. The ADS is a NASA funded project and is free to use for everybody world-wide. We have recently implemented a new version of the ADS notification system ``myADS.'' This system allows our users to specify, for each of the 4 databases, an author query and two subject matter queries. These queries are executed whenever the databases are updated, and the results are emailed to the user. This system makes it very easy to keep up-to-date with the literature in Astronomy and Physics, as well as the preprint ArXiv. We plan to offer this capability in collaboration with the preprint ArXiv to the users of the preprints, to allow for a more customized notification system for new preprints. The ADS can be accessed at \medskip \center{http://ads.harvard.edu}   

Session R12: Nuclear Reactions

Measurement of Spin-Correlation Coefficients for p-$^{3}$He Elastic Scattering

As part of an investigation of the A=4 system, we measured the spin-correlation coefficients A$_{yo}$, A$_{oy}$, A$_{yy}$, and A$_{xx}$ for p-$^{3}$He elastic scattering at E$_{lab}$ of 2.3, 2.7, 4.0, and 5.5 MeV and $\Theta _{lab}$ between 30$^{o}$ and 150$^{o}$. The data were taken using TUNL's atomic beam polarized ion source and a new spin-exchange optical pumping polarized $^{3}$He target\footnote{ T. Katabuchi \textit{et al.,} to be published in Rev. Sci. Instrum.}. We aim to resolve ambiguities in the phase shifts of George and Knutson\footnote{ E.A. George and L.D. Knutson, Phys Rev C 67, 027001 (2003)}, which seem most sensitive to A$_{xx }$and A$_{yy}$ at the lowest of these energies. Our 5.5 MeV data compare well with earlier data\footnote{ B.M. Fisher \textit{et al.}, in: Proceedings of FB17, eds. W. Glockle and W. Tornow, Elsevier 2004}$^{,}$\footnote{ M.T. Alley and L.D. Knutson, Phys Rev C 48, 1901 (1993)}. Our new measurements will be shown with phase-shift-analysis solutions.   

Coupled reaction channels analysis of $^{7}$Li + $^{6}$Li interactions

Cross sections and the analyzing powers $^{T}$T$_{10}$, $^{T}$T$_{20}$, and $^{T}$T$_{30}$ were measured for the reactions $^{6}$Li($^{7}$Li,$^{7}$Li)$^{6}$Li, $^{6}$Li($^{7}$Li,$^{7}$Li$^{*}$$_{0.48}$)$^{6}$Li, $^{6}$Li($^{7}$Li,$^{7}$Li)$^{6}$Li$^{*}$$_{2.186}$ MeV and the one-nucleon transfer reactions $^{6}$Li($^{7}$Li,$^{6}$He)$^{7}$Be and $^{6}$Li($^{7}$Li,$^{6}$He)$^{7}$Be$^{*}$$_{0.43}$ MeV at 42 MeV using the FSU Polarized Li-ion source and the FSU Tandem/LINAC Accelerator. These reactions were analyzed using Coupled Reaction Channels Calculations that employed optical potentials of Woods-Saxon type, double-folded and cluster-folded potentials in order to understand the origin of the observed analyzing powers. The results of these calculations and their interpretation in terms of virtual and real couplings as well as spin-orbit and tensor forces will be presented.   

Can the CDCC calculation be improved?

The Continuum Discretized Coupled Channels method of including breakup effects in the calculation of nuclear reactions, when applied to unstable nuclei, requires the inclusion of a large number of coupled channels, and the numerical computational effort increases correspondingly. The computing time with traditional finite difference techniques [1] scales with the cube of the number of channels $N$. The scaling with a new spectral integral method ($SIEM$) [2] of solving coupled equations is likewise $N^{3}$. However, the structure of the matrices that occur in the numerical algorithm of the $SIEM$ is different from that of the finite difference methods, and lends itself well to iterative solutions, reducing the numerical complexity to $N^ {2}$ times the number of required iterations. Various iterative schemes will be considered, and their convergence properties will be examined. \bigskip\newline[1] \ I. J. Thompson, code FRESCO, Comp. Phys. Rep. \textbf{7}, 167 (1988);\newline[2] \ R. A. Gonzales, S. -Y. Kang, I. Koltracht and G. Rawitscher, J. of Comput. Phys. \textbf{153}, 160 (1999).   

Survival of Very Neutron Rich Fragments in Multifragmentation

The yield distributions of isotopically resolved projectile residues from semi-peripheral collisions of 86Kr (25 MeV/nucleon), 64Ni (25 MeV/nucleon) and 136Xe (20 MeV/nucleon) beams on a variety of targets are studied in this work. The reactions of 86Kr with 64,58Ni, 124,112Sn and 208Pb were studied with the MARS recoil separator of the Cyclotron Institute of Texas A&M [1]. The reactions of 64Ni and 136Xe with 64,58Ni and 124,112Sn, as well as 208PB, 232Th were studied with the Superconducting Solenoid (BigSol) Line. Special attention is given to projectile residues, escpecially the most neutron rich ones, produced at excitation energies near the multifragmentation threshold(2-3MeV/nucleon). Both the N/Z and the kinematical properties of the observed fragments are well described by a hybrid calculation involving a deep inelastic transfer model for the dynamical stage of the collision and the statistical multifragmentation model (SMM) [2] for the de- excitation stage. Apart from a nuclear reaction standpoint, the observed survival of very neutron-rich fragments also addresses the practical issue of the production of neutron-rich rare isotopes in multifragmentation. [1] G.A. Souliotis et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 91 (2003) 022701; Nucl. Instrum. Methods B 204 (2003) 166, [2] A.S. Botvina et al. Phys. Rev. C 65 044610 (2002) and references therein.   

Evolution of isoscaling

The evolution of isoscaling is studied using classical molecular dynamics simulations of several reactions at various energies. Isoscaling at different stages of the reaction was calculated and the validity of the isoscaling power law was estimated.   

Critical analysis of data from peripheral Si+Sn reaction at 50 MeV/nucleon - probing N/Z degree of freedom

Evidence of nuclear liquid-gas phase transition in small mass systems A$\sim $36 has been reported previously [1], where the minimum of the critical topological exponent $\tau $ as a function of temperature of the multifragmenting source has been checked by two theoretical models which include liquid-gas phase transition, with good agreement. We will present an analysis of the fragmentation of quasiprojectiles obtained in the reactions $^{28}$Si+$^{124,112}$Sn at 30 and 50 MeV/nucleon [2]. We will show that apparent critical behavior is present also in smaller systems where the charge of the reconstructed quasiprojectiles is Z=12-15. We extracted the critical exponent $\tau $ as well as the second moment of charge distribution S$_{2}$. The minimum of $\tau $ and maximum of S$_{2}$ lie in the vicinity of excitation energy of qusiprojectiles E$^{\ast }\sim $5 MeV/nucleon. The dependence of $\tau $ and S$_{2}$ on N/Z degree of freedom of quasiprojectile will be discussed. [1] Y. G. Ma et al., Phys. Rev. \textbf{C69}, 031604(R) (2004) [2] R. Laforest et al., Phys. Rev. \textbf{C59}, 2567 (1999)   

Using Light Cluster Production to Explore the Density Dependence of the Nuclear Symmetry Energy

The production of deuteron, triton, and $^{3}$He in heavy-ion collisions induced by a neutron-rich nuclei has been studied using a coalescence model for treating cluster production from an isospin-dependent Boltzmann-Uehling-Uhlenbeck(iBUU) transport model. Using this approach, it has been shown that the both the multiplicities and energy spectra of light clusters are sensitive to the density dependence of the nuclear symmetry energy but not to the isospin-independent part of the EOS or the in-medium nucleon-nucleon cross sections. Isotopically identified light charged particles have been measured with the NIMROD detector for reactions of $^{58}$Fe and $^{58}$Ni at 45 MeV/A. The energy spectra and multiplicities of these fragments will be compared with predictions from the iBUU and Antisymmetrized Molecular Dynamics (AMD) theoretical codes.   

The amalgamation stage of fusion reactions

There is no need of a repulsive potential in the amalgamation stage for explaining the small fusion cross sections. The repulsive potential proposed by A. Adamian et al.(1) can advantageously be replaced by the affinity of the reaction of re-dissociation of the compound nucleus into its entrance-channel configuration. This reaction, which occurs after the penetration of the Coulomb barrier, is an equilibrium between dual and compact form of the compound nucleus, and the energy Q released in the dissociation is equal to the energy required for amalgamating. The total energy of the confined system being equal to the height B of the Coulomb barrier, the intrinsic excitation energy of the compact nucleus is equal to (B - Q). In the reaction 82Se+ 138Ba (2), the dissociation of 220Th releases 180.524 MeV, and B= 196.08 MeV. With an intrinsic excitation energy of 15.56 MeV, the confined compact 220Th has enough energy for emitting two neutrons ( S(2n) = 13.85 MeV). Thus the favored xn channel of fusion reactions can be precisely predicted. This new, mass-data-based model of fusion is completely parameter-free. 1 G.G. Adamian et al., PRC 69 (2004) 044601. 2 K. Satou et al. PRC C 65(2002) 054602.   

Session R13: History of Physics II

Plato's TIMAIO$\Sigma$ (TIMAEUS) and Modern Particle Physics

It is generally known that the question, ``What are the smallest particles (elementary particles) that all matter is made from?'', was posed already in the antiquity. The Greek natural philosophers Leucippus and Democritus were the first to suggest that all matter was made from atoms. Therefore, most people perceive them as the ancient fathers of elementary particle physics. It will be the purpose of my contribution to point out that this perception is wrong. Modern particle physics is not just a primitive atomism. More important than the materialistic particles are the underlying symmetries (e.~g., $SU(3)$ and $SU(6)$). A similar idea was first advanced by Plato in his dialog TIMAIO$\Sigma$ (Latin translation:\ TIMAEUS): Geometric symmetries generate the materialistic particles from a few even more elementary items. Plato's vision is amazingly close to the ideas of modern particle physics. This fact, which is unfortunately little known, has been pointed out repeatedly by Heisenberg (see, e.~g., Werner Heisenberg, {\it Across the Frontiers}, Harper \& Row, New York, 1974).   

Early radium experiments in Guadalajara, M\'{e}xico

In April 01, 1904, two catholic lay priests, Severo D\'{i}az Galindo and Jos\'{e} Mar\'{i}a Arreola Mendoza, performed firsts Radium experiments in Guadalajara, M\'{e}xico, just after Radium experiments realized in Mexico City by Prof. Luis G. Le\'{o}n. Results of such experiences where published in the {\it Bolet\'{i}n Eclesi\'{a}stico y Cient\'{i}fico del Arzobispado de Guadalajara\/} (Eclesiastic and Scientific Bulletin of the Guadalajara Archbishopric), here is show this paper and some of the first Radium plates obtained. Scientific and educational situation in Guadalajara is described and how both persons became founders of the modern scientific activity in the city.   

U.S. Scientists and the Chinese Reception of Relativity

Li Fangbai (1890-1959) was the first Chinese physicist who introduced relativity in China. Although Li was educated in Japan, his introduction was based completely on his reading of Western physics works, especially those by U.S. scientists Gilbert N. Lewis and Richard C. Tolman. Since then U.S. scientists had an increasingly significant influence on the Chinese reception and research of relativity. For example, two leading Chinese theoretical physicists, who carried on researches in general relativity in the 1930s and 1940s, graduated from Caltech and MIT respectively. There were many other connections between U.S. physicists and China's reception of relativity. This paper presents findings of the historical investigation on such connections, which will also reveal the U.S. contributions to the rise of theoretical physics in China.   

Disaster Scenarios at Nuclear Accelerators

The Bevalac accelerator was created at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1974 to study dense nuclear matter. The possibility that Lee-Wick density isomers could be formed and destroy the Earth was considered by an internal committee which concluded that the possibility was remote and the experiments should proceed. This was mentioned in an article in Physics Today in 1993, which resulted in the authors being put on the Unabomber's list. The RHIC accelerator at Brookhaven National Laboratory began operation in 2000 to create quark-gluon plasma. Concerns that strange quark matter or mini-black holes could be formed that would destroy the Earth were aired in the Sunday Times of London in 1999, which resulted in an open committee review whose report was published in Reviews of Modern Physics.