From Effective Interactions Extracted Using Hi-C Data to Chromosome Structures in Conventional and Inverted Nuclei*

Contact probabilities between loci, separated by arbitrary genomic distance, for a number of cell types have been reported using genome-wide chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) experiments. How to extract the effective interaction energies between active euchromatin (A) and inactive heterochromatin (B) directly from the experimental data, without an underlying polymer model, is unsolved. Here, we first calculate the pairwise effective interaction energies (A-A, B-B, or A-B) for interphase chromosomes based on Hi-C data by using the concept of statistical potential (SP), which assumes that the interaction energy between two loci is proportional to the logarithm of the frequency with which they interact. Polymer simulations, using the extracted interaction energy values without any parameters, reproduce the segregation between A and B type loci (compartments), and the emergence of topologically associating domains, features that are prominent in the Hi-C data for interphase chromosomes. Remarkably, the values of the SP automatically satisfy the Flory-Huggins phase separation criterion for all the chromosomes, which explains the mechanism of compartment formation in interphase chromosomes. Strikingly, simulations using the SP that accounts for pericentromeric constitutive heterochromatin (C-type) show hierarchical structuring with the high density of C-type loci in the nuclear center, followed by localization of the B-type loci, with euchromatin being confined to the nuclear periphery, which differs from the expected nuclear organization of conventional interphase chromosomes, but is in accord with imaging data. Such an unusual organization of chromosomes is found in the inverted nuclei of photoreceptor rods in nocturnal mammals. The proposed method without free parameters and its applications show that compartment formation in conventional and inverted nuclei is best explained by the inequality between the effective interaction energies, with heterochromatin attraction being the dominant driving force.