Session BW: Mini-Symposium on Fluid Dynamics of Sports

Modeling golf ball fluid mechanics - challenges and opportunities

Numerical simulation presents a powerful tool for understanding the fundamental fluid mechanics that influence golf ball aerodynamics, as well as providing an approach for ultimately analyzing and designing golf balls for manufacture. Robust and accurate simulation strategies are central to providing a means to screen designs prior to costly prototyping and field measurement. Results from a hierarchy of simulation strategies applied to the flow around golf balls will be presented, ranging from Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) computations to Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). RANS methods, while leading to computationally efficient approaches, are challenged to represent using ad hoc turbulence models the subtle effects induced by surface dimpling. DNS on the other hand, offers a first-principles approach that enables detailed examination of mechanisms though carries a significant computational cost. Predictions from both techniques are contrasted; opportunities for advancing each technique are identified.   

Experimental measurement of the aerodynamic properties of golf balls

Accurate measurements of the lift, drag and spin rate decay characteristics of golf balls are necessary to predict the golf ball trajectory and its point of impact. Three principal methods are used to determine these characteristics: (1) wind tunnel testing using a lift and drag balance; (2) outdoor testing using a tracking camera, whereby the trajectory and spin of the golf ball is monitored during flight, and (3) indoor testing, whereby the trajectory is broken down into various Reynolds number regimes and each regime is tested by launching the golf ball over a heavily-instrumented short indoor range. Here, we discuss the relative merits of each testing technique, and demonstrate how the output of the tests is used in a trajectory program to simulate the flight of the ball.   

Computational Modeling and Analysis of the Fluid Dynamics of Competitive Swimming

In order to swim efficiently and/or fast, a swimmer needs to master the subtle cause-and-effect relationship that exists between his/her movements and the surrounding fluid. This is what makes swimming one of the most technical of all sports. For the most part, science has played little if any role in helping swimmers and coaches improve swimming techniques or even to better understand the fluid dynamics of human swimming. Experiments of free swimming humans are extremely difficult to conduct and computational modeling approaches have, in the past, been unable to address this very complex problem. However, the development of a new class of numerical methods, coupled with unique animation and analysis tools is making it possible to analyze swimming strokes in all their complexity. The talk will focus on describing a relatively new numerical method that has been developed to solve flows with highly complex, moving/deforming boundaries. Numerical simulations are used to perform a detailed analysis of the dolphin kick. This stroke has emerged as an important component of competitive swimming in recent years and our analysis has allowed us to extract some useful insights into the fluid dynamics of this stroke. In addition, we also address the continuing debate about the role of lift versus drag in thrust production for human swimming.   

Baseball Aerodynamics: What do we know and how do we know it?

Baseball aerodynamics is governed by three phenomenological quantities: the coefficients of drag, lift, and moment, the latter determining the spin decay time constant. In past years, these quantities were studied mainly in wind tunnel experiments, whereby the forces on the baseball are measured directly. More recently, new tools are being used that focus on measuring accurate baseball trajectories, from which the forces can be inferred. These tools include high-speed motion analysis, video tracking of pitched baseballs (the PITCHf/x system), and Doppler radar tracking. In this contribution, I will discuss what these new tools are teaching us about baseball aerodynamics.   

Fluid Mechanics of Cricket and Tennis Balls

Aerodynamics plays a prominent role in defining the flight of a ball that is struck or thrown through the air in almost all ball sports. The main interest is in the fact that the ball can often deviate from its initial straight path, resulting in a curved, or sometimes an unpredictable, flight path. It is particularly fascinating that that not all the parameters that affect the flight of a ball are always under human influence. Lateral deflection in flight, commonly known as swing, swerve or curve, is well recognized in cricket and tennis. In tennis, the lateral deflection is produced by spinning the ball about an axis perpendicular to the line of flight, which gives rise to what is commonly known as the \textit{Magnus effect.} It is now well recognized that the aerodynamics of sports balls are strongly dependent on the detailed development and behavior of the boundary layer on the ball's surface. A side force, which makes a ball curve through the air, can also be generated in the absence of the Magnus effect. In one of the cricket deliveries, the ball is released with the seam angled, which trips the laminar boundary layer into a turbulent state on that side. The turbulent boundary layer separates relatively late compared to the laminar layer on the other side, thereby creating a pressure difference and hence side force. The fluid mechanics of a cricket ball become very interesting at the higher Reynolds numbers and this will be discussed in detail. Of all the round sports balls, a tennis ball has the highest drag coefficient. This will be explained in terms of the contribution of the ``fuzz" drag and how that changes with Reynolds number and ball surface wear. It is particularly fascinating that, purely through historical accidents, small disturbances on the ball surface, such as the stitching on cricket balls and the felt cover on tennis balls are all about the right size to affect boundary layer transition and development in the Reynolds numbers of interest. The fluid mechanics of cricket and tennis balls will be discussed in detail with the help of latest test data, analyses and video clips.